Great deeds, dark secrets
THE DRILLMASTER OF VALLEY FORGE:
The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army
By Paul Lockhart
337 pp. HarperCollins $27.95
Reviewed by Roger Poppen
History is comprised of a framework of names, dates, and locations, but the interstices between these cold hard facts are what’s interesting. Using the voluminous correspondence of Steuben and his contemporaries, Lockhart does an outstanding job of filling in the spaces, painting a colorful picture of eighteenth-century army life. He provides first-hand accounts of the often tumultuous life and times of the Prussian immigrant whose efforts turned an ill-equipped, poorly motivated bunch of recruits into an army able to hold its own against superior British forces.
Born in 1730 into a military family with claims to nobility, Steuben was named for Friedrich Wilhelm I, King of Prussia. Entering the army as a young teen, he had a distinguished record and was on track for a general’s commission when, in 1757, he suddenly was dismissed. Lockhart attributes this to a jealous rival who had influence with the king.
Steuben then found a position as chamberlain for a financially burdened prince of a minuscule German state. During this period, he received a chivalric award, which in Gallic translates to Baron de Steuben, of which he was very proud. Lockhart notes some historians dispute the legitimacy of the title, but concludes it is genuine.
Steuben left in 1775, seeking to rejoin the military. He was offered an army post in another small principality, only to have it withdrawn in the face of accusations he had “taken familiarities with young boys.” Some historical accounts assert that homosexuality was the reason Steuben was ousted from the military as well as his position as chamberlain. As further evidence, Steuben never married, though women found him charming, and always kept about him young men to serve as translator, aide, or companion. Lockhart regards the matter as ambiguous, noting that Steuben’s outward braggadocio covered an inner fear and self-doubt that may have prevented an intimate relationship with anyone. In any event, by 1777 Steuben had few career options in Europe.
He had, however, influential friends in Paris who believed he would be helpful in wresting the American colonies from Britain and promoting French interests. They inflated his rank, accomplishments, and dedication to the rebels’ cause in letters to George Washington and the Continental Congress, and his voyage was arranged.
In late February, 1778, he met General Washington. Lockhart writes, “Valley Forge may have been hell on earth for the enlisted men . . . , but it was not all that unpleasant for the army’s generals.” Steuben was a frequent guest at Washington’s table, and was well received by other officers. Concerned that his falsified credentials would catch up to him, Steuben admitted to some exaggerations and miscommunication. But he’d made such a positive impression that these were overlooked.
Washington assigned him first to take over training of the entire army. Infantry warfare consisted of men marching into battle, firing in volleys, changing formation as the battle progressed, using bayonets in close combat, and advancing or retreating in an orderly fashion. The Continental Army was woefully deficient in these skills, relying instead on an improvised militia engaging in guerilla actions, a “war of posts.” Washington believed both were necessary. Lockhart states an additional benefit of drill: “Constant practice...turns men into unthinking cogs in a larger military machine. It breaks down individuality, replacing the inclination to think with the instinct to obey.”
The magnitude of Steuben’s task was staggering. Lockhart provides a vivid contrast between the fancy-uniformed, well-fed, aristocratic Prussian officer and the gaunt collection of farmers, tradesmen, and laborers dressed in tatters. Yet thePrussian commander was able to connect with his soldiers. Alternately praising and cursing through translators, he shaped basic skills, working with small squads until he had a “model company” of a hundred men. These were dispersed to teach what they had learned to their respective regiments. Steuben tirelessly reviewed the regiments, progressively adding more complicated maneuvers. He instilled a remarkable esprit de corps; the men were proud of their accomplishments and revered their strange, ostentatious leader.
In June, 1778, Washington moved against the British. Lockhart provides a detailed account of the engagements, marked by the woeful retreat by General Charles Lee at Monmouth. Washington and Steuben rallied the fleeing troops. Their training paid off and they successfully beat back the British. Lockhart states that Monmouth is the least understood battle of the Revolution, since most records are of acrimonious testimony in Lee’s subsequent court-martial, and Steuben’s accounts are “prone to exaggeration.” Lee fought the decision and made trouble for Steuben, who finally challenged him to a duel; Lee apologized and backed down.
Another major assignment was writing the Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, comprising a drill manual, organizational principles, and a code of conduct. This took a year to produce and is “one of the most significant and enduring documents in American military history.” Steuben also had the task of implementing the regulations in his role as inspector general.
But he desired above all to be a field commander, and in 1780 Washington sent him to Virginia to organize forces for a southern campaign. Lockhart writes, “In a mere six months, Steuben would come to regret this with every fiber of his being.” Governor Thomas Jefferson repeatedly reneged on promised men and materiel, and Steuben’s imperious manner alienated the Virginians. When attacks began the following year, Steuben’s small forces performed admirably, grudgingly giving up ground until reinforcements arrived. Ill from exhaustion, he rested that summer, yet was able to command a brigade at Yorktown in the siege leading to Cornwallis’s surrender. Steuben was placed in charge of training the army for another year, and then oversaw its disbanding. Washington’s last act before resigning as general-in-chief was to write a letter of thanks to the Baron de Steuben.
Thanks did not pay the bills, and Steuben, as he had throughout his service, hounded Congress for money and recognition he felt was his due. Always in debt, he spent lavishly on uniforms and other luxuries. Lockhart notes he once ordered twenty plumes and cockades for his hats, at a cost of $2200—more than thirteen times his monthly pay! After the war, he lost huge sums in get-rich-quick land speculations. Plans to turn property he was given in upstate New York into a baronial estate went bust. There, in a two-room log cabin, he died in the winter of 1794.
For the history buff, The Drillmaster is a scholarly work that provides another lens through which to view the Revolutionary War. For the rest of us, the Baron de Steuben is a fascinating character, a man of enormous accomplishments, yet with dark secrets. Hollywood, take note.
Roger Poppen has a Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University and spent over thirty years as researcher and professor. He authored two books and over a hundred professional articles and presentations in the field of behavior analysis and therapy. His focus since retiring is creative writing.
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